Eisenhower in the Pacific: Part 1 The Shoestring Warriors of Luzon

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Battle of Albay Gulf December 10-11, 1941
Even as the climax of the Battle of the Hawaiian Islands is underway far to the north and east, the Japanese and American navies are engaging in a fierce action off the coast of southern Luzon.

Japanese Forces
South Philippines Cover Unit
CA Nachi, Myoko, CVL Ryujo (15 Claude fighters, 12 Kate bombers, 4 spares each), CL Jintsu, DD Shiokaze, Hayashio, Kuroshio, Natsushio, Oyashio, Amatsukaze, Hatsukaze

Having attacked Davao on December 8, the Cover Unit steams north to move into position to cover the landing at Legaspi. Supporting the Japanese are flying boats from Palau which along with Kate's from the Ryujo are conducting searches in the waters of the Central Philippines to look for any American warships

Legaspi Invasion Group (V Adm Takahashi)
escort force: R Admiral Kubo
CA Ashigara, Cl Nagara, DD Kawakaze, Suzukaze, Yukikaze, Umikaze, Yamakaze, Tokitsukaze,
invasion force
Seaplane Tender (CVS) Chitose (16 Pete Floatplanes, 4 Jake floatplanes), Mizuho (16 Pete floatplanes, 4 Jake floatplanes), minelayer Aotaka, 2 PC (subchasers), 2 minesweepers (AM), 10 transports carrying Kure 1st SNLF (Navy), construction brigade (Navy), Kimura Brigade (2 inf battalions, 2 engineer companies, 1 artillery battery w 4 75 mm guns)

American Forces
Asiatic Fleet Surface Force: R Admiral Glassford
CA: Houston, Louisville, CL Boise, destroyers Paul Jones, Stewart, Bulmer, Barker, Parrott
support: several PBY Patwing 10,
air cover: 7th Pursuit (PAAF) w 18 CW21 Demon fighters, VMF112 (USMC) w 16 P40B Warhawks
air striking force: 19th Bomb Group w 6 RB17C, 18 B17D, 27th Bomb Group w 36 A24 Banshee, 8 AT6 Texan


The Ships
Japanese ships
All 3 Japanese heavy cruisers are Myoko class ships at 13,000 tons, capable of 36 knots and armed with 10 x 8 inch guns (3 forward, 2 rear turrets), 8 x 5 inch AA guns, 2 heavy machine guns, 12 torpedoes in 12 tubes (3 quad launchers amidships),

the Jintsu is a Sendai class light cruiser at 5500 tons, capable of 35 knots and armed with 7 x 5.5 inch guns (single mounts), 12 light AA guns, and carrying 24 torpedoes

the Nagara is the class name of her class, has 5 x 6 inch guns (single mounts), 24 light AA guns, but only carries 8 torpedoes

the Japanese destroyers are all similar in capability and in two classes and have 4-5 x 5 inch guns and 6-8 torpedo tubes.

The Japanese have 9 floatplanes (Pete type) aboard their various cruisers

The American Ships
the 2 American heavy cruisers are Northhampton class cruisers and are treaty cruisers at under 10,000 tons, capable of 32 knots and armed with 9 x 8 inch guns (3 triple turrets), 4 x 5 inch guns (single mounts), 2 x quad mounted 1.1 inch guns, 4 heavy machine guns, and their aircraft have been taken off and are being supported by seaplane tenders at Panay which are being used for local patrol and search

the Boise is a very modern Brooklyn class cruiser at close to 12,000 tons and capable of 32 knots armed with 15 x 6 inch guns (5 triple turrets), 8 x 5 inch guns (single turret mounts), 8 heavy machine guns, and her aircraft too have been taken off

All 4 American destroyers are all Clemson class 4 Stack destroyers, a bit smaller than their Japanese opponents, older, but capable of 35 knots and armed with 4 x 4 inch guns (single mounts), 1 x 3 inch (AA mount), and 12 torpedo tubes equipped with Mk 8 torpedoes which have half the range and warhead of the Japanese torpedoes but unlike the more modern torpedoes carried by the US Fleet submarines and more modern destroyers do not have the reliability problems that are already plaguing American submarines.

situation 2300 Hours Dec 10, 1941
American approach is in Red, The Southern Cover force is moving up from the south (in black) while the invasion fleet is moving from the east (in black)

 

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Prelude December 10, 1941 Daylight hours
American and Japanese search planes spot the opposing forces over the course of the day, but American and Japanese fighters each shoot down a float plane. The Japanese carrier force, under Admiral Takagi, is within air strike range, but the appearance of American fighters makes him loathe to commit his small force of bombers until they are within range of his comparatively short range fighters.

As night fall approaches at 1700 hours, it is clear that the American surface fleet is on a heading to attack the Invasion Force.

But that is not all the Americans are planning.

The 27th Bomb Group attacks 1505 Hours December 10
The Americans have 36 A24 Banshee bombers armed with a single 500 pound bomb each (as there are no heavier bombs available) and 8 AT6 Texans each carrying 4 light 100 pound bombs. While the Banshee are capable of dive bombing attacks the Texans are only capable of glide bombing. To escort them Colonel George sends 4 CW21 Demon fighters from the 7th Pursuit and 8 P40B fighters from VMF112. The Warhawks will deal with any enemy aircraft, while the Demons provide back up and if their help is not needed, strafe the enemy seaplane tenders. Texans will also hit the seaplane carriers, while the Banshee attack will focus on the enemy cruisers. Their specific orders are to “attack the biggest ships they see with guns on them” as Colonel George is well aware that his Army pilots are terrible at ship identification.

The Japanese have 12 of their Pete floatplanes in the air, which can be used as area defense fighters, up as a combination anti-submarine patrol and combat air patrol. The rest of their float planes have already been recovered or in the case of their Jake floatplanes, due to return for recovery at dusk. The Japanese are too far away for fighter protection from either Formosa or the Ryujo but as far as the Japanese know, there are no bombers likely to be within range of them either. Indeed the only air contact so far was a SOC Seagull that was shot down by a pair of Pete aircraft at 1458 hours. The Japanese failed to spot a PBY that flew overhead a short time later, only picking up its radio signal and it transmits a position report.

The American and Filipino aircraft arrive together flying at 11,000 feet, and the Warhawks and Demons immediately swarm to the attack and within a few minutes have shot down all 12 of the Japanese float planes in the air. While the Marine and Navy pilots fly back up to altitude in case any Japanese fighters show up, the Demons and Texans swarm in on the seaplane tender Mizuho, strafing it heavily and igniting 2 float planes on her deck and inflicting light damage but numerous casualties. Japanese fire is heavy, and 1 of the Demon fighters and 3 of the Texans are downed (all 4 pilots are killed) and 2 of Texans are forced to crash land on Leyte as they attempt to return home. The dive bombers meanwhile concentrate on the biggest ship spot as they approach, with both the 16th and 17th squadrons concentrating on the Nagara, failing to spot the Ashigara until the 16th has already begun their dives, and heavy fire and orders to concentrate their attack causes the squadron commander of the 17th to commit his aircraft to the same target.

The American Army pilots have been trained to attack ground targets, not ships, and most of thrown off by the desperate evasive action by the Japanese cruiser. Of 36 bombs dropped, only 4 hit her, but they hit her hard. The high explosive bombs (as the Army lacks armor piercing bombs) blast apart her torpedo tubes, starting fierce fires amidships, another kills most of the men manning her aft guns, and a final hit blasts apart her middle stack and briefly snuffs out her boilers. The Japanese manage to get her fires out and restore power by 2114 hours but she is need of repairs and will need to return to Japan for those.

Japanese fire has been fierce in return however, and less well trained than Navy Dauntless pilots, the Army Banshee's attack at a shallower angle and pull up sooner, exposing them to anti-aircraft fire longer than Navy planes would have to face. This is a costly lack of training for 5 of the American aircraft which are all forced to crash land on their way home, although all of their crews are recovered. The 17th suffers the entirety of this loss as their aircraft came in behind the lead squadron and the Japanese had more time to react. Several more of the bombers return to base with bullet holes and other light damage but remain combat worthy.

The pilots of VMF 112 score again as the force leaves the scene, running down and destroying 2 Jake float planes as they are returning to their ships. In all the engagement has cost the Japanese a light cruiser heavily damaged, a seaplane tender lightly damaged and 16 floatplanes, including 2 destroyed aboard their ship.

It has been a costly strike for the American and Filipino pilots however. 5 dive bombers, 1 fighter, and 5 light attack bombers, all precious and irreplaceable, are gone. VMF112, which has pilots trained in ship identification (indeed 2 of the pilots were dive bomber pilots before they volunteered for the AVG) report that one Japanese light cruiser has been heavily damaged and is likely out of action.

Luzon December 10
Meanwhile Japanese bombers hammer Del Carmen Field in the morning and Zablan Field in the afternoon, effectively destroying both fields. Chennault has kept the 17th, 74th and 75th Pursuit squadrons on strip alert ready to cover the evacuation of Subic Bay and although fighters are scrambled during both raids he orders them to remain over Subic.

Weather closes down Del Monte field in the morning, delaying the take off of bombers from Darwin until conditions clear and thus the B17Ds of the attack force commanded by Colonel Eubanks do not arrive until late afternoon, too late in the day to attack the Japanese in support of the 27th Bomb Group.

 

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Night Action
It is the second meeting of the Japanese and American Navies of the Pacific War, a mere 24 hours after the Battle of Kure (described in detail in Battle at Dawn). The American force is arranged with the five destroyers in a line abreast ahead 2,000 yards ahead of the American cruisers and cover a line 8,000 yards across. Behind them in line ahead is the Houston, Louisville and Boise. The Boise is the only American ship with radar, carrying an SC1 set aboard which can pick up aircraft at 120 miles, a large ship at 20 miles and a destroyer at 6 miles. The Houston was due to get a CXAM set but delays in shipping space meant that the set planned for her is aboard a ship of the Pensacola Convoy (as are the crewmen to operate it).

The Americans at first spotted at 2300 hours by a Japanese floatplane from the Nachi, which sends a sighting report. The Japanese Cover Force is steaming on a converging course at 30 knots, while the Americans, uncertain as to whether the Japanese Invasion Fleet escorts will meet them in open water or are remaining close to their charges, are steaming at 18 knots. Meanwhile the Japanese escorts, 4 destroyers and the cruiser Ashigara, have formed a line and are running a race track pattern at the entrance of Albay Gulf.

Upon receiving the sighting report, the carrier Ryujo and 3 destroyers break off to the west north west so that they will be in strike range in the morning but well away from the likely shooting.

Admiral Glassford has classified the enemy as Bandit 1 (Invasion fleet), and Bandit 2 (carrier fleet), while his force is call sign Ranger (named after a ship commanded by John Paul Jones). He is unaware that both Bandit groups have subdivided.

Bandit 2 is closing fast, with 4 destroyers in an arc 4,000 yards relative to the light cruiser Jintsu, with the two heavy cruisers 3,000 yards behind the Jintsu and 1,000 yards apart (with the Nachi in the lead).

Bandit 1 has all 6 of its destroyers in line ahead in a race track pattern across the entrance of the gulf, with the Ashigara near the transports, support ships and damaged Nagara providing distant fire support. Several Japanese float planes are aloft, patrolling the entrance of the Gulf as well as actively searching for the Americans. The Boise has them on radar but has orders to hold fire.

However at 0130 hours, the Boise picks up the approaching destroyers and Bandit 1 and signals Glassford aboard the Houston that the enemy is approaching from the west north west and closing fast. The Admiral orders his three cruisers to turn and engage in line ahead while the destroyers are to attempt to enter the gulf and engage Bandit One with torpedoes.

Bandit Two versus the American cruisers
At 0145, the American cruisers open fire with the Houston engaging the Shiokaze, the Louisville engages the Hayashio and the Boise engaging the Kuroshi. The American ships light up the Japanese with searchlights and starshells and then a blizzard of 6 inch rounds, firing at a rate of 5 rounds a minute from all 15 of the heavy guns of the Boise, and in the first 5 minutes at least 20 of these shells blast the Kuroshi into wreckage that explodes into a fireball without even getting off a shot. The Houston and Louisville do not have the awesome rate of fire of the Brooklyn class cruiser but they still score numerous hits and both of their targets are quickly forced to sheer off, afire and heavily damaged. However this spectacular light show illuminates the Americans and the other Japanese destroyers and the cruiser Jintsu make an emergency turn due south and launch every torpedo they have. The Houston meanwhile has accelerated to 32 knots and is outside of the spread, while the Boise misses as she is behind the torpedo spread. Most of the Japanese torpedoes miss but 2 score, gutting the Louisville and knocking out her boilers and thus her power. She also is set ablaze and is a perfect target for the two Japanese heavy cruisers which make their turn to the south and open fire at 15,000 yards with their 20 eight inch guns, quickly scoring hit after hit. Within a few minutes the Louisville is ablaze from end to end and is sinking. The Boise is forced to dodge her, which saves her from a second torpedo spread by the Japanese heavy cruisers.

lost at Albay Gulf, the heavy cruiser Louisville

Having silenced the Louisville, the Japanese shift their fire, with the Nachi, Jintsu and remaining destroyer shooting at the Houston while the Myoko opens up on the Boise. The Boise leads a charmed life, dodging the heavy 8 inch salvos while having an excellent target solution on the Jintsu shift her fire to her, and again a fire hose of shells blasts a Japanese ship into burning wreckage, silencing all of the guns on the Jintsu, killing everyone on her bridge and blasting her superstructure into wreckage. Aflame, the Jintsu sheers out of line but as damaged as she is, her hull integrity is untouched and she is able to fleet due east. The Houston is less lucky however. She scores several hits on the Nachi, smashing her after superstructure and wiping out the crews of most of her anti-aircraft guns, but she takes several hits herself, one of which wipes out her after turret and forces Captain Rooks to flood the aft magazine to avoid catastrophe.

However just as things are looking particularly grim, a rain squall arrives and both sides lose sight of one another. Glassford orders a withdrawal, having lost one of his cruisers and achieved his goal of drawing off Bandit Two. By the time the Japanese discover the American cruisers again it is 0500 and the American ships are miles to the south fleeing through the San Bernardino Strait.

The Americans have lost the Lousville and over 500 dead aboard her, as well as 100 men aboard the Houston but sent three Japanese destroyers to the bottom and reduced another light cruiser to a wreck that will require months of repairs. The Nachi too will need at least a few weeks in the yard for repairs of her own, and over 600 Japanese sailors are dead or missing. But there are no shipyards between Singapore (already under air attack) and Pearl Harbor for the Houston, and her damage is serious enough to require major repairs.

Ambush at Albay Gulf
Meanwhile the destroyers Paul Jones, Stewart, Bulmer, Barker, Parrott are steaming at high speed toward the enemy invasion fleet. They are under close observation however by Japanese float planes and as the Americans approach Bandit One the Japanese open fire with a full spread of torpedoes. Again most of the torpedoes miss but two hit the Stewart which explodes and sinks almost immediately, taking with her all but 20 of her crew as the first torpedo hits her bow and blows it off and a second hits her amidships as she is whipped to the port side by the blast of the first torpedo.

The Japanese have effectively crossed the American 'T' and now open fire with a blizzard of 5 inch rounds with the Ashigara steaming up to support and opening fire with her forward two 8 inch turrets. Most of the shells miss as the American destroyers frantically make emergency turns and launch their own fish and then laying smoke, flee at their best speed, but the Parrott takes numerous hits and slowed sufficiently that she is soon far behind the remaining American destroyers. Only one of the American torpedoes hits, inflicting serious damage to the destroyer Tokitsukaze,that knocks out her power and boiler room. The Japanese pursue the Parrott and quickly score more hits that by 0445 leave her drifting and out of control. Her crew abandons ship and many of the 94 survivors make their way ashore and rescue by friendly Filipinos.

Morning December 11
The Ryujo launches a strike at first light with 11 Kate torpedo bombers and 3 Claude fighters and attacks the American destroyers who are several miles behind the American cruisers. The Houston and Boise are in a rain squall and thus hidden from sight while the destroyers are speeding toward that rain as fast as they can. The Bulmer and Barker both take two torpedoes each and are abandoned by 0930 hours as neither are able to restore power or stop their flooding. Casualties are relatively light, with only 50 killed or missing from the two ships crews. The rest manage to make their way ashore to friendly locals and eventual rescue.

Meanwhile, the heavy cloud cover results the strike by of the 19th Bomb Group, with 16 B17Ds (as 2 had to abort) failing to find the invasion fleet at all, and only by sheer luck finding the Ryujo and its escorts. Dropping from 20,000 feet, and with a higher speed than the defending Japanese Claude fighters, they suffer no losses. They also fail to score even a near miss on the Japanese carrier or any of its escorts. This weather also foils a Japanese strike by 27 Betty level bombers from Formosa who fail to find either American surface force and results in it dropping its bombs on Clark Field on their way home, adding yet more craters for the engineers to be filled. This weather also forces the cancellation of a planned morning strike by the 27th Bomb Group but 3 A24s are lost when they suffer accidents due to weather trying to land back at Cebu.

Postcript
The Houston, Boise and destroyer Paul Jones (the only survivors) are assigned to the escort of the convoy of other Asiatic Fleet warships and Allied merchant ships that flee from Subic Bay and Manila Bay December 10-13, and proceed to Darwin. For the Houston the campaign is over. She is sent Brisbane for emergency repairs, and then to Philadelphia for a full refit as most of the shipyard space on the US West Coast is busy dealing with the ships damaged in the Hawaiian Islands battles.

The Japanese are forced to send the cruiser Nachi, Nagara, and Jintsu back to Japan for repairs, and they have lost 3 destroyers While failing to delay or significantly harm the landing force at Legaspi, the American attack does have a more significant result however. The Japanese are forced to reexamine their plan for the thrust toward the eastern Dutch East Indies and Darwin as well as delay the planned landing at Davao. The Combined Fleet Staff decide that more carrier support will be needed and indeed one immediate result of Midway and Pearl Harbor is to strip the operation of the seaplane tender Chitose while the light carrier Ryujo is ordered to Japan to replace its fighters and join the 1st Air Fleet. Thus the planned landing at Davao scheduled for December 19 is put off until January. This keeps the sea route clear from Darwin to Cebu clear for the vital weeks of the American evacuation of excess military personnel from the Navy and Army Air Force, the bulk of the Philippine Army Air Force personnel, most of the Allied civilians caught in the Philippines by the outbreak of the war, as well as nearly all of those wounded unlikely to recover within 30 days as of December 13. It also provides valuable time for the institution of an air bridge from Darwin to Del Monte to Cebu to Bataan using transport aircraft and old bombers pressed into the role.

The Battle of Albay Gulf has one other immediate consequence however. With the loss of so many senior commanders in the Hawaiian and Philippine Campaign to date, new commanders are needed in the Pacific. With Hart (Commander Asiatic Fleet) and Richardson (Commander Pacific Fleet) dead, and Halsey wounded and Pye crippled, the opportunity exists to set up a new commander structure. As Winston Churchill is in Washington for nearly two weeks, he and FDR, as well as their senior advisors work out new command arrangements for the Pacific and Southeast Asia. For the interim however General Eisenhower is made officially commander of US Forces Southwest Pacific, which includes American forces in Australia (and eventually New Guinea and the Solomon Islands) as well as those fighting alongside what will soon be ABDA Command (American, British, Dutch, Australian) in the East Indies. The performance of his American and Filipino troops at the Battle of Lingayen Gulf soon proves the wisdom of this promotion.

The escort carrier CVE 57 receives the name Albay Gulf, while all 4 of the destroyers lost see their names reused for destroyer escorts. The cruiser Louisville (CL83) reaches the Pacific in late 1945.

The USS Boise, whose 6 inch guns blasted two Japanese warships into wreckage at Albay Gulf

 

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The Evacuation December 9 – 22, 1941
General Eisenhower, in addition to being commander of the Luzon Force, remains General Krueger's Chief of Staff until Krueger is severally wounded on December 8. However Eisenhower had empowered several engineer and transport officers, both Filipino and American, to act as his assistants and these men, particularly Colonel Lewis Beebe, were invaluable when war came.

By December 11, there are several groups of people that Eisenhower decides will be leaving as soon as possible. There are over 40 merchant ships in Manila Bay when the war begins, and several of the fastest are immediately chartered by the Commonwealth Coast Guard, while several others are chartered by the Filipino Army on the orders of General Ord. Valuable cargoes are found on some, including 57 Bren Gun Carriers that were en route to Hong Kong for the Canadians there, and considerable fuel oil and gasoline. The POL (petroleum, oil and lubricants) is offloaded onto barges and sent to Bataan which allows POL storage depots near Lingayen to remain where they are needed for the expected invasion while still building up a reserve for Bataan. Literally thousands of tons of food are sent to Bataan from these ships, as well as a large amount of quinine which is found on a Dutch freighter which had been en route to the United States.

Due to prewar planning, Corregidor already has sufficient stores for 6 months at full rations for 20,000 men, while stock piles for 150,000 people for 90 days have already been assembled at Bataan. The windfall from the merchant ships adds nearly double that stockpile all on its own, while additional stores begin moving from elsewhere in Luzon, particularly from corporate warehouses in northern Manila, which will double that figure yet again.

On December 10, the first ships are ordered out and they steam south independently. The more valuable ships, such as the tankers, fast cargo ships (fast being a ship capable of cruising at 10 knots or better) and the US Navy support ships such as the destroyer tender Black Hawk, submarine tenders Holland and Otus, and seaplane tender Langley as well as the four light transports of the Philippine Coast Guard are sent to Subic Bay, escorted by 8 destroyers and 2 minesweepers, plus the gunboats Asheville and Tulsa (now in Philippine Coast Guard service).

Here they begin loading several groups of people. The first group are 4,000 civilians from the United States and other Allied countries, as well as Filipino dependents of US servicemen and government employees. The Far East Air Force sends the bulk of the Filipino's in the Philippine Army Air Force as well as most of the ground personnel except for those needed to support the remaining squadrons of the 23rd and 24th Fighter Groups and the 27th Bomb Group. This amounts to 6,000 American and Filipino personnel. Some of these will be sent on to Del Monte, but the remainder will go to Darwin. The Filipinos to obtain new aircraft to form fighter and bomber squadrons to fight on, and the Americans for reassignment or to provide the personnel needed for operations out of Darwin where already much of the 19th Bomb Group has arrived and more B17s and P40s are already en route.

The next loaded aboard is the entire 4th Marine Regiment (1,100 men), which Admiral Rockwell and General Eisenhower initially plan to send to defend Cebu but whose destination is changed to Darwin after the results of the Battle of Albay Gulf become clear. Admiral Rockwell plans to establish a rear area support base to provide support for the Philippines there and he wants the Marine Regiment available to defend it, or to send forward to Java to defend bases there should it appear necessary. Also loaded aboard are nearly 3,000 men from the US Navy and Philippine Coast Guard or civilian shipyard employees working for either. These are the survivors from Cavite, as well as the entire staff of Sangley Point Naval Air Station and the hospital located there, as well the entire staff of Olongapo Naval Base (Subic Bay) except for the 1st Separate Battalion, USMC, which is sent to Mariveles (along with its radar and anti-aircraft guns) and 500 volunteers to man the submarine tender Canopus, rescue ship Pigeon, seaplane tender Huron, and provide experienced cadre for the 3 China gunboats and 2 minesweepers that will remain behind as part of the 16th Naval District along with 6 US Navy PT boats, and the various remaining craft and motor torpedo boats that remain of the Philippine Coast Guard.

Among the final people loaded aboard are most of the US Navy and US Army nurses (aside for 15 volunteers from the Army who stay) as well as sufficient personnel from the Philippine Army and Commonwealth government to establish evacuation hospitals at Cebu and Del Monte. Equipment and supplies to get them into service will be brought by air and fast transport from Darwin. The final group are nearly 2,000 wounded, both Filipino and American, who are not expected to be fit for duty within 30 days but who are viewed as not likely to die within that period either.

The Japanese fail to attack these ships on December 10th through the 12th , focusing their airpower on the continued destruction of airfields that they are aware of in Luzon as well providing support to their landings at Aparri, Vigan and Legaspi. On December 13th however, the Japanese hit Subic Bay and destroy the floating drydock Dewey as well as nearly the entire base as no one aside from a few final salvage crews remain and they cannot put out the fires that result.

Aside from 5 merchant ships that were sunk during the bombing of Manila on December 9th, in all over 200,000 tons of Allied shipping escape the Philippines successfully. Indeed the gallant sacrifice at Albay Gulf buys them more time to escape as it delays the Japanese invasion of Davao which would surely have resulted in some of these ships being spotted and sunk by Japanese aircraft while in the proximity of that operation.

By December 12th the evacuation gains the support of the Boise, which becomes command ship for the convoy of 21 merchant, transport and support ships and 13 escorts. By December 22 this convoy has reached Darwin where most of the military personnel are unloaded, while the ships carrying civilians are sent on to Brisbane along with most of the wounded.

 

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While the Japanese attack the Philippines and Malaya, the Allies are forced to develop a response.

The ABDA Fleet
The sudden outbreak of war and invasion of Malaya catches the British naval reinforcements still en route. By December 12, while the fleet is still approaching the Singapore (a 2200 nautical mile trip with zig zagging), Singapore is forced to admit that the Japanese have air superiority. Admiral Tom Phillips is ordered to return to Colombo and await reinforcements by Dudley Pound, who has learned of the American losses to air attack at Pearl Harbor and already is well aware of Royal Navy losses at Crete and Greece a mere 8 months before.

Phillips is ordered put together a battle force to reinforce the Dutch, Australians and Americans in the defense of the Malay Barrier, but the bulk of his force is to remain in the Indian Ocean. Vice Admiral Layton, who was en route home, is ordered to remain as well and to take command of forces in the Indian Ocean, while Phillips will be in overall command of British and Commonwealth naval forces in the East Indies and Indian Ocean.

In Washington, Churchill and Roosevelt are discussing the problems of dealing with the Japanese, as well as the Axis powers in Europe, and the strategy of “Germany First” remains the over riding principal. Only such forces as can be spared are to be sent to fight the Japanese, aside from such forces as are needed to shore up weaknesses at critical locations such as India, Australia, Hawaii and Alaska.

The Americans, with the help of Australia, New Zealand and what forces the Free French have are to be responsible for the defense of Australia and Hawaii, as well as the communications between them. The British will be responsible for India, Burma and the sea lanes to that area. Between them however is the Malay Barrier and the important resources of the Southwest Pacific. The Dutch and British are determined to defend their possessions to the last, and while the Americans are prepared to fight as long as possible they are less willing to commit further resources when Australia and Hawaii are a much higher priority.

But the Battles of Midway, Kure Atoll and Albay Gulf show that the Japanese can be fought and hurt, and the successful defense of Midway and the initial rebuffs of the Japanese at Wake Island show that they can be beaten. A new Allied command is created, the ABDA Command (American, British, Dutch, Australian) with Wavell in overall command and Admiral Phillips in command of naval forces, with British command in Malaya, Dutch command in the Dutch East Indies and Eisenhower in command of the Philippines and American Army forces in Australia (which serves as a staging point for the Philippines).

Meanwhile Phillips orders the battle cruisers Repulse and Renown, along with 2 heavy cruisers, 4 light cruisers and 5 destroyers to Batavia where it will link up with the Dutch forces under Admiral Helfrich and his small fleet of 2 light cruisers and 7 destroyers. Privately the US Navy considers Phillips to have an impossible mission.

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The flagship of the ABDA Fleet January 1942

 

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Japanese preinvasion preparation December 12-20, 1941
The Japanese continue to hammer American installations on Luzon from Formosa, and after emergency airfields previously built by the Philippine Army are seized at Vigan and Aparri, from Army air units that move to hurriedly expanded air strips there. Chennault conserves his fighters as much as he can, intercepting only those raids that can be detected on radar from Mariveles. The 17th, 74th and 75th Pursuit squadrons are down to 14 aircraft apiece by December 20 due to operational and combat losses, while the Japanese have bombed Corregidor several times, hit the airfields they already have hit numerous more times, but have as yet failed to locate the American airfields at Bataan.

The Philippine Coast Guard base at Aliminos in Lingayen Gulf is completely destroyed by a heavy raid on December 18 which levels the base, destroys the coast defense guns assigned there, inflicts serious casualties and also sinks or wrecks all of the vessels assigned to the base, either in port or while they attempt to maneuver including all of the Philippine Coast Guard Motor Torpedo Boats.

On December 19 Japanese minesweepers, escorted by destroyers, begin clearing Lingayan Gulf of American mines. Meanwhile American Catalina's spot a large fleet steaming toward the Lingayen Gulf, while poor weather has prevented American RB17Cs from spotting a smaller but still large fleet steaming toward Lamon Bay. By December 20 the Japanese will be in strike range of the remaining A24s of the 27th Bomb Group and B17s of the 19th Bomb Group have staged to Del Monte Field. However unknown to the Americans, a Japanese seaplane from Palau spotted the American bombers and watches them land at Del Monte. The Japanese have already moved their 23rd Flotilla from Formosa to Pelelieu and have 54 G4M Betty bombers and 36 Zero fighters available and within range of the American base. The bulk of the 21st Flotilla remains in Formosa but has orders to prepare for a move to Palau within days, but its remaining fighters (54) and bombers (60) will provide support for the landing at Lingayan Gulf and Lamon Bay until December 26.

American submarines fail
The Asiatic Fleet has 22 of its 28 remaining submarines on patrol between December 8 and December 21. They conduct 45 attacks and sink only 3 freighters, none of which were actually assigned to the approaching invasion force. The destruction of the bulk of available torpedoes at Cavite and heavy damage to all American naval bases in the islands has reduced support to only the single remaining submarine tender and Admiral Rockwell orders his submarines to operate from Java although until more torpedoes arrive they ability to inflict damage is limited.

In addition to technical failures, several commanders will be relieved for cause for personal failures as some officers simply are not aggressive enough or able to withstand the pressure of war time command.

For Eisenhower it is a serious disappointment as his first line of defense has completely failed. He has another card to play with the US Army Air Force however and has been waiting for the right time to hit back. That time has now come.

Air Battle of Luzon December 21, 1941
The Americans strike first on the morning of December 21. A raid of 25 B17D bombers of the 19th Bomb Group (6 of which have to abort for mechanical problems) take of from Del Monte with the mission of attacking and destroying the Japanese Army airfield at Aparri. Meanwhile the 23 remaining A24s of the 27th Bomb Wing take off from Bataan escorted by 36 P40B Warhawk fighters from the 24th Pursuit Group.

Meanwhile the Japanese Army has every available attack plane in the air hitting suspected American positions at the primary landing site around the port of Lingayen, while its bombers attack Fort Stotsenburg (which they suspect rightly to be the current headquarters of the USAFE) and fighters cover both. The Japanese Navy fighters from Formosa are overhead covering the Japanese fleet already landing troops, and 18 Zero fighters are on hand when the American dive bombers and fighters arrive. The American fighter pilots are able to keep the Japanese fighter cover away, downing 7 Zeros at the cost of 3 of their own, clearing the way for the A24s. Japanese flak is fierce but not as heavy as expected and the Americans manage to score several hits, with 5 transports hit but none are left sinking. But the Japanese troops suffer over 500 casualties, and several guns are lost as well. Japanese flak knocks 3 of the bombers down and several more are damaged.

The B17s are much more successful. They catch the Japanese Army completely by surprise, badly cratering the runway, destroying over a dozen aircraft that had been down for maintenance, and inflicting serious casualties to Japanese Army ground crews, effectively knocking the 16th Bomber Regiment out of action for two days.

However the B17s are spotted by a 18 Navy fighters that are flying to relief the combat air patrol over Lingayen Gulf and are attacked. The Japanese Zero fighters catch the American bombers by surprise, downing 3 of them and damaging 4 more sufficiently to cause them to make emergency landings at Clark Field, where they are caught by an afternoon raid by Japanese Army light bombers and destroyed. The Japanese also catch a RB17C flown by Captain Colin Kelly that has suffered an abort and is flying toward Clark Field. That officer wins the Distinguished Flying Cross by remaining with his aircrat until all of his crew manage to bail out at the cost of his life. That action and citation is misinterpreted by American reporters who send a story back to the United States reporting that he attacked and sank a Japanese battleship.

However the 19th Bomb Group is knocked out of action completely when they land at Del Monte Field and within an hour a massive raid by Japanese Navy bombers out of Pelelieu arrives and destroys all but one of them on the ground, along with several Beechcraft light transport planes and a DC3. The Army gets some revenge however as the 9 P40E Kittyhawks that remain flyable from the 3rd Pursuit squadron catches the Japanese on the way out, downing 7 of them before Zeros drive them away at the cost of 2 P40E and 1 Zero. That American victory is a hollow one as the 19th Bomb Group is effectively knocked out of action for weeks to come.

The Japanese Army meanwhile has finally learned the location of the American airfield at Mariveles thanks to excellent reconnaissance work by 4th Air Brigade. A force of 18 Lily Bombers escorted by 24 Nate Fighters hits Mariveles as the A24s are about to take off. Coming in low, the Army avoids radar detection (although the Army was actually trying to avoid ground observer detection) and Chennault is not able to scramble his fighters in time. Thus the Japanese Army inflicts devastating losses, destroying 13 of the A24s on the ground or as they take off and effectively ending the American strike before it can begin. The 24th Pursuit gets revenge, catching the Japanese Army aircraft as they depart the area and the American pilots slaughter the Nate fighters, who are as inferior to the P40 as the CW21 is to the Zero. A total of 15 of the Army fighters are shot down or crash on the way home at the cost of only 2 American fighters.

By evening the US Air Force Far East has lost permanently its ability to stop the Japanese. Another card Eisenhower has been counting on is gone.

 

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American / Filipino Dispositions in Blue, Japanese units and landing sites in Red

 

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The Battle of Apoo Beachhead: The Japanese assault at Lingayen Gulf

December 21, 1941
A Japanese fleet moves into the Lingayen Gulf. Careful minesweeping by the Japanese Navy has cleared the way and while an American air attack is damaging and results in the loss of 500 troops killed or wounded and the loss of several 75 mm guns and numerous trucks, it does not materially impede the invasion which begins in the early morning hours of December 21. Poor weather and navigational errors buts the Japanese 4 miles south of there intended landing zone, a 15 mile strength of coast between Apoo and Damortis. This is fortunate for the northern force, which instead of landing into the teeth of the defenses of the 57th Infantry Regiment (Philippine Scouts) it lands in an area that is only patrolled instead of defended. However the southern landing by the 1st Formosa Regiment (reinforced) instead of landing in a similarly thinly defended area lands right into the teeth of the 45th Infantry Regiment (Philippine Scouts) and the 2nd Battalion/1st Coast Defense Artillery (Philippine Army). Unlike the Philippine Army regiments, the 45th and the other Philippine Scouts infantry regiments are fully equipped, although cannon company has older World War I French 105 guns, and many of the mortars have defective rounds, it has its full compliment of machine guns and its infantry have the 1903 Springfield instead of the less suitable rifles equipping the Philippine Army troops. The Philippine Coast defense troops have six 6 inch naval guns (from USN stocks) as well as 6 pounder guns from the old armored cruiser Baltimore, a pair of 57 mm guns, and best of all 24 heavy machine guns (also from USN stores) and plenty of ammunition.

A few miles behind the beach is the 31st Infantry Regiment (US), as well as the divisional artillery and engineer battalion of the 12th (Philippine) Division. The 11th Infantry (Philippine Army) is 20 miles away, while the 23rd Infantry Division (US), is 60 miles away by road, while the 9th Cavalry Brigade (US) is 50 road miles away.

The two northern landings go reasonably well, although several landing craft are lost and many are damaged in heavy surf but the Japanese get the 2nd Formosa and 47th Infantry regiments get ashore and by late morning their supporting tanks, artillery and anti-aircraft guns are ashore as well. They engage the 57th on the northern flank soon after landing (the 1st Formosa) while elements of the 47th Regiment run into the US 31st as it moves up to counterattack in the jungle east of the beachhead. Heavy fighting results and the inexperience of the American troops results in the the American troops getting lost and shifting to the north instead of attacking the beachhead straight on. They are also surprised by the heavy Japanese tank support (40 are already ashore) which fail to make much progress in the close terrain but are a serious surprise to the American troops who lack much in the way of anti tank weapons.

By late afternoon the 3rd Coast Artillery (Philippine Army, anti-aircraft) arrives to support the American troops, and their 37 mm and 3 inch AA guns prove to be a valuable support. The American counterattack halts the Japanese progress inland but by days end the 31st Infantry has lost almost 25% of its infantry (600 casualties in all),

Meanwhile the 11th Division moves into position, with the 9th Cavalry moving up, while the 23rd Infantry moves up as well. However all of this movement occurs during darkness and none of these troops are yet ready to counterattack before dawn on December 22.

The southern landing by the 2nd Formosa does not go nearly as well for the Japanese. Here the Japanese are still pinned down a mere few yards from the beach by the end of the day, and their follow on tanks and artillery have been diverted to the 47th landing zone. The Japanese have suffered over 600 casualties and have failed to achieve any of their objectives although American losses have not been light either as Japanese warships have been pouring fire ashore all day dueling with the Philippine coast artillery gunners and some beach positions have been overrun.

December 22
The Japanese fight hard to expand their beachhead as morning breaks, with the 1st Formosa attacking the northern flank held by the 45th Infantry, the 47th attacking and pushing hard on the 31st Infantry, and the newly arrived Japanese 9th Infantry Regiment (16th Division) attacks from the north while the Japanese 2nd Formosa continues to attempt to break out of its pent up shallow hold. Japanese commanders are told to ignore losses and continue the attack regardless of the cost.

Fierce fighting pushes the 45th Infantry out of Agoo but the 31st manages to hold its ground and just as importantly so does the 57th Infantry, but in the heavy fighting at Damortis 2nd Lieutenant Sandy Nininger earns his posthumous award of the Medal of Honor as he continues to direct fire and rally his troops in a desperate counterattack in spite of suffering a serious wound and only stops his heroic efforts when he suffers the wound that kills him.

In the late afternoon the 11th Infantry and most of the 9th Cavalry Brigade move up into the assembly area that the stubborn fight of the 57th Infantry has held clear of Japanese troops and launches their counterattack. In spite of determined efforts the Japanese manage to hold their positions although losses are serious on both sides but the Japanese still remained tightly contained and little room is available to bring in the needed reinforcements. However as night comes the pinned down 2nd Formosa slips north across the beaches and links back up with rest of the 48th Division having given up on a frontal assault on Darmotis.

The Japanese beachhead at the end of two days fighting is only 10 kilometers wide and while 15 kilometers deep in the middle, both flanks are only 5 kilometers inland. The Japanese have suffered nearly 6,000 casualties so far and General Homma is facing very difficult decisions on the morning of December 23.

Meanwhile, having been covered by clouds until first light, the fleet carrying the 16th Division arrives at Lamon Bay and in the early morning hours assaults a beach defended by the 21st Infantry Division. The lightly armed Filipino troops are unable to inflict significant damage to the leading Japanese regiment (33rd Infantry) and a determined counterattack by 4 battalions and half of the divisional artillery (6 75 mm guns) fail to make significant headway against the Japanese.

In the north, the Japanese 4th Division is now pushing south from northern Luzon, shoving the lightly armed Filipino troops of the 101st MP brigade who can only delay the Japanese but not stop them.

December 23
The rest of the 16th Division lands at Lamon Bay, pushes the 2/23rd Infantry (PA) aside, and cuts off the 22nd Infantry (PA) at Mauban, where it comes under heavy assault. The Filipinos fight hard but all 2,500 men of the regiment as well as several guns are lost as ammunition is exhausted and most of the officers are killed or wounded. It is a painful blow to General Ord, commander of the II Corps, who oversaw their training and knew many of the officers personally.

Meanwhile, Homma orders the battle to continue in spite of a suggestion that the 48th Division dig in and await relief from the north from the 4th Division moving down from the north. He is already 3 days behind schedule, losses have been heavy, and honor demands that the attack continue. Homma also is convinced that if he can break the Americans here, the campaign will be won. He orders full scale assaults by every available unit south against the 57th Infantry (which has support from the 11th Infantry Regiment, the 112th Cavalry Regiment and 192nd Tank battalion) while the other half of the 48th that remains combat effective attacks north against the 31st and 45th Infantry. The 12th Division is dangerously exposed at this point, as one of its regiments is on the far side of the beach head, and its principal supply route is a mere 3 miles from the Japanese forward penetration (which thankfully for the Americans consists of 3/47 Infantry which is a weak company at this point and a pair of anti tank guns and a few crew for those). General Wainwright orders his troops to hold at all costs, as the 23rd Division is still moving into position and the front must hold to allow them to complete their link up with the 12th Infantry Division.

The American and Filipino troops hold, in spite of the best efforts of the Japanese to break through in the south. However the Japanese finally overrun the gun positions of the 2/1st Coast Artillery which finally ends the American shelling of the southern edge of the beachhead which has inflicted significant damage to the Japanese rear area troops attempting to bring ashore supplies and sunk several landing craft and damaged several Japanese submarine chasers. In the north the Japanese manage to push forward 3 miles when they find a seem between the 45th and 31st Infantry. But while the Japanese gain some ground they have gained what they needed to block the upcoming attack by the 23rd Infantry Division which is finally in position.

At Lamon Bay General Ord is forced to relieve the emotionally shattered commander of the 21st Infantry Division. However 5 of its remaining infantry battalions are pinned in place by heavy Japanese pressure and he can only pull a portion of the surviving troops back. General Ord moves up to take personal command of the situation, ordering General Parker to move the 1st Infantry from its positions around Balayan Bay and the highlands around Cavite with the approval of Eisenhower.

Eisenhower meanwhile decides that with 3 Japanese divisions identified so far it seems unlikely another landing is coming. He orders the 51st Division to move from its positions around Subic Bay, leaving only engineers and coast artillery crews at Fort Witt to hold it. He orders King to send his corps artillery as well, and Eisenhower then orders what is now is his reserve to San Fernando so it can be committed either to the I Corps or II Corps as needed. Eisenhower is worried that he is running out of time however. The situation at Lamon Bay is going badly, but he sees an opportunity to gut a third of the Japanese invasion force and possibly even destroy that third. He will give it another couple of days.

Progress helps him justify that decision as reports come in that night. The 194th Tank Battalion and 65th Infantry Regiment overrun and destroy the leading Japanese elements (the remnant of the 3/47 Japanese Infantry) and Japanese losses continue to mount. The Japanese beachhead is now 10 kilometers deep and 10 kilometers wide and Eisenhower and Wainwright are convinced that Japanese are approaching crisis.

December 24
Homma is becoming desperate and General Tsuchihashi, commander of the 48th Infantry Division is becoming even more so. Another full scale assault is launched on both flanks of the beachhead and room is needed urgently to land the artillery needed to provide the needed firepower to break out of the situation that has become stalemated from the Japanese perspective. At the cost of heavy casualties the 1st Formosa finally manages to push the 45th Infantry back and retake Agoo, gaining 4 kilometers of vitally needed ground and opening sufficient space for Homma to finally land his critically needed artillery battalions and the additional ammunition and supplies that the 48th Division has nearly exhausted.

Orders are sent for the 4th and 16th Divisions to increase their pressure on the Americans. Order are also sent for the 65th Brigade to be moved into action more urgently.

By evening Wainwright is forced to report that his troops are not going to be able to crush the Japanese beach head in the next couple off days. Eisenhower looks at the critical situation facing the 21st Infantry, his heavy casualties to date (8,500 men killed, wounded or missing) and one of his best divisions is badly mauled while another division has been hurt even more severely. He sees little choice. At 0800 hours he orders the I Corps to begin a withdrawal.

Meanwhile at midnight General Homma views his own casualty reports, which number over 10,000 killed, wounded or missing, and he is days behind schedule and already under heavy pressure to get his campaign moving. Over 7,500 of these casualties are from the 48th Division which was scheduled for participation in the invasion of Java scheduled for February.

 

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Learning to fight: analysis of the Battle of the Apoo Beachhead
The heavy fighting at the beachhead cost the 11th PA, 12th PS and 23rd PS Divisions between a third to half of their infantry strength. Japanese losses were similar and in some cases, such as a battalion of the 47th Regiment of the 48th Infantry Division that loss approached 80%. But the fierce fighting failed in the end to hurl the Japanese back.

The Japanese had several important advantages. The first was their landing site. The Americans were set up to attack a landing at the center of the Gulf from three sides, with the armored / cavalry force to provide the final push to to the beaches. However the Japanese landing on the eastern side of the Gulf, with a river between them and three of the four American formations, and immediately engaged the 12th Infantry Division (PS) splitting it almost in two, forcing it to react to events instead of launching a counterattack when the Japanese where most vulnerable. In addition the Japanese beachhead was only 8 kilometers from thick jungle in an area with only one road. Thus the American force had to attack across a river and through jungle, and particularly in the jungle, communications breakdowns, inexperience, some poor leadership at the junior level and even battalion level and inability to coordinate the counterattack properly led to failure. The American force was forced to attack and thus be defeated in detail, and the final effort simply added more casualties.

Other problems were the Japanese were simply better armed, managed to get more firepower into the fight, had more skill with their mortars, machine guns (and many more of both) and managed to finally get nearly 3 brigades of heavy guns ashore that overpowered the American artillery. American tanks found that the Japanese tanks were vulnerable (indeed losing 15 M3 Stuart tanks, mostly to anti-tank guns against Japanese losses of 36 tanks, mostly to American artillery, heavy machine guns and a a brief company sized tank battle between the Japanese 7th Tank Regiment and the US 194th Tank Battalion).

But the counterattack failed. Although potentially the Americans and Filipinos still could have pushed the Japanese back into the sea, it would have wrecked all four of the combat formations of the I Corps to do it while the Japanese attack from northern Luzon and from Lamon Bay threatened its northern flank and rear. The attack also used up staggering amounts of artillery ammunition, nearly all that had not yet been moved to Bataan, and Eisenhower decided in the end that there was simply too high a risk of destroying the cream of his army that he can never replace with Japanese naval and air domination already in effect.

But the heavy damage to the 48th Infantry Division and the fact that it too is forced to use up nearly all of the supplies it landed with buys Wainwright the time to break off the action.

 

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A Series of Brave Stands: The Retreat to Bataan
Eisenhower orders General Ord and his II Corps, now reinforced with the 1st PA Infantry Division, to hold the Japanese up as long as possible in the Lake Taal area. General King is ordered to send the 51st Infantry Division to move north and then east into the Zambalas Mountains to take up position for a potential counterattack later. General King is ordered to send his corps artillery, as well as the corps artillery from I Corps which is already being evacuated and concentrate at San Fernando.

Wainwright meanwhile moves the 11th PA Division and 6th Cavalry brigade up to cover the withdrawal of the 12th and 23rd Divisions as well as corps artillery and all of the tanks of the 192nd and 194th battalions. The units pulled out are to pull back to San Fernando and take all the stores and supplies with them that they can carry with them. Everything that can be moved by railroad, at night, is to be moved right away.

The American pull back is aided a 24 hour pause by the Japanese, as they have to resupply and reorganize as well. However the Japanese land the 65th Infantry Brigade (which is nearly a division in size) as well as the remainder of the 4th Division is landed at Vigan. This Japanese pause however will have consequences, as the American troops, except for half of the 101st MP brigade which is under heavy pressure by the Japanese 4th Division, are able to break contact cleanly, and it allows plenty of time for the evacuation of the wounded, supplies, stores, support units and then combat units with little hindrance.

Further south the 21st Infantry Division has more difficulty. General Taniguchi pushes his division hard, according to Japanese doctrine of speed and still more speed to push forward and keep the enemy off balance. His supply situation however is not as stressed as the main force that has just fought a major battle further north. To break away, General Vincente Lim is forced to leave the 1/23rd behind at San Pablo to hold to the last bullet to buy more time.

The rivers and jungle that made the American counterattack a series of piecemeal actions however also works against the Japanese now, who slowed considerably as they expand their beachhead, and that expansion is aided by American motorized and horse cavalry troopers of the Texas / Montana 112th Cavalry and Philippine Scouts 26th Cavalry regiments. The Americans give the Japanese a very bloody nose on December 26 when they catch two depleted battalions of the 2nd Formosa Regiment crossing the Bued River and in a sharp counterattack by the 1st Squadron / 26th Cavalry on horse back and A Troop/1st Squadron / 112th Cavalry in trucks, scout cars aided by some half tracks with 75 mm guns overrun the two battalions and kill 300 Japanese soldiers at the cost of only 100 casualties. Both battalions are wrecked and have to be pulled out of the line, effectively reducing the 48th Division by an entire regiment as the remaining battalion of the 2nd Formosa was severely reduced already. Among the casualties is the commander of the 2nd Formosa who is relieved for cause and soon after takes his own life. 1st Lieutenant Edwin Ramsey, 26th Cavalry, who led the horse cavalry charge, is awarded the Silver Star for this action and within weeks is assigned to General Eisenhower as his aide-de-camp.

Boxing Day would remain an honored holiday in the Cavalry Branch of the US Army for generations to come.

On December 27 the Japanese land a brigade of Special Naval Landing Force troops at Palawig and shortly thereafter size Iba Field which they promptly begin to repair. They meet no resistance upon landing. However further north on this day the 101st MP Brigade, now redesignated the 101st Infantry Brigade (although it receives no replacements, reinforcements or extra supplies to make this more than a empty honor) fights a determined battle outside of Baguio with the 102nd Regiment and further east at Bessang Pass the 101st Regiment/101st Infantry Brigade inflicts a shattering ambush on the Japanese 37th Infantry Brigade / 4th Infantry Division, inflicting over 1,000 casualties and leaving it disorganized and combat ineffective for 3 days. Further south around Lake Taal the Japanese 16th Division finds a solid line, and with only two regiments available, General Homma orders it to hold off attacking until the rest of the 14th Army is closer to Manila but to detach troops to secure Balayan Bay and its useful port.

Homma is still waiting for replacements as his losses have been far heavier than expected and now two of his four major combat formations are at reduced combat effectiveness. Ammunition expenditures have been far heavier than planned as well. However his engineers have rebuilt the piers at Damortis and Lingayen allowing ships to actual unload directly ashore instead of having to rely on his overworked landing craft.

Meanwhile in Tokyo the General Staff is shocked that the Americans have managed to inflict over 13,000 combat casualties on the 14th Army in the first two weeks of the campaign, a number far higher than expected or planned for. Over 60 tanks have been lost as well as dozens of other motor vehicles and officer casualties have been particularly heavy. The 38th Infantry Division, which has recently captured Hong Kong, is alerted for likely deployment to Luzon as soon as shipping is available.

The 65th Infantry Brigade runs into the 11th PA Division and attached 43rd Infantry Regiment, and is forced to deploy in preparation for a set piece attack, which takes two days to set up in the dense jungle at which point the American troops withdraw leaving the attack to fall upon empty jungle. However General Homma is able to claim a victory on December 31 as the 4th Infantry Division enters Baguio, the summer capital of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and the Filipinos retreat from Bessang Pass. The 16th Division meanwhile probes the positions held by the 1st and 21st Division north of Lake Taal, but meanwhile has sent half of its force south to take Balayan which will outflank the American position. General Ord is aware of the Japanese progress but the small skirmishes gives him a chance to blood the 1st Infantry Division which had not yet been in contact with the enemy. The survivors of the 102nd Regiment/101st Infantry Brigade, all 400 of them, disband and go into the mountains to form the basis of what will eventually be a significant partisan movement in the Carabal Mountains by 1944.

On January 2, satisfied that the overwhelming majority of supplies and equipment have been evacuated, and with the bulk of his force now within reasonable distance of Bataan, he orders III Corps (12th and 23rd Divisions) which have mostly completed refitting, to be reissued their trucks so that they can begin pulling back from San Fernando to Bataan.

Meanwhile, the nearly 24,000 engineers of the Filipino 1st, 3rd and 4th Engineer brigades have been working for weeks to prepare Bataan for defense. One of the most important measures have been widespread efforts for mosquito control, as Bataan has a frighteningly high rate of the disease in peacetime. Most of the 20,000 civilians have been evacuated from the area or in the case of nearly 10,000 of them, put to work raising poultry, pigs and fish, or assisting the hospitals. The military engineering efforts have prepared two defense lines, and nearly every strand of barbed wire in Luzon is now in place, as well as hundreds of 3 inch mortar rounds converted into anti-personnel mines.

Food for nearly 100,000 people is now in place to last at least 9 months. Although Eisenhower knows he will run out of ammunition and men long before then when the Japanese attack for long enough, at least his men will fight in reasonable health.

Meanwhile on that same date, the 51st Infantry Division (PA) attacks a battalion of the 1st SNLF defending the Iba Field area, catching it by surprise. The Japanese are thrown back 4 kilometers but regroup and counter attack but merely stabilize the line. The 51st then retreats east back into the Zambales Mountains having suffered 400 casualties but earning valuable experience while forcing the Japanese to remain cautious. The Japanese 65th prepares another deliberate attack, this time against two battalions of the 43rd Philippine Scouts Regiment which are holding the line as the 11th Division has been pulled out by rail, and awaiting relief by the 26th Cavalry. The Japanese gain some ground as the Filipinos fall back in the jungle and otherwise achieve very little. However Balayan finally falls this date and Ord gives the command for his corps to prepare to retreat.

Manila is being stripped of everything of potential military value which continues to flow across Manila Bay by boat and barge every night, or by rail and road. The Commonwealth Government has already been reduced to a skeleton staff in the city, with the President, Vice President and several legislators and judges flown out via Cebu to Java and then Australia. With them are sent over 1,000 people, including staff and family members with only High Commissioner Sayre, Secretary of Justice Santos and Secretary of Defense Valdes remaining behind in Manila of the war cabinet, the rest having been evacuated. The city meanwhile is subject to daily bombing but as the Japanese Army has only 20-25 Lily bombers available at any one time for the mission, damage remains acceptable and so are casualties except of course for those actually personally affected. The city remains defended by the only a few batteries of 3 inch guns of the 3rd and 4th Philippine Coast Artillery, enough to keep the enemy bombers high but not enough to really defend the city. However while civilian casualties since the war began total nearly 8,000, the city continues to function.

Meanwhile Eisenhower moves his headquarters and the majority of his staff to Corregidor on January 2, although he and his forward staff remain at San Fernando overseeing the final phases of the withdrawal. He also orders that the engineers be used as a source of replacements for the Philippine Army and Philippine Scouts infantry battalions which sorely need men to replace their losses to date. This provides his infantry with nearly 6,000 well trained (at least in terms of discipline) men and with combat experienced NCOs and officers in the regiments will be able to rapidly make int useful infantrymen.

Among the final steps to prepare for siege is the disposition of the wounded. To date the US Army Far East (ground forces) have suffered just over 10,000 combat casualties. Of these 2,000 are POWs in Japanese hands, mostly from the battered 21st Infantry Division which lost a regiment at Lamon Bay. Another 3,000 are killed or missing. Of the 5,000 wounded, half are expected to be out of action for over 30 days. Of these 2,500 men, all but 400 are Filipinos. These wounded are shifted to civilian hospitals or to their homes if possible. The American severely wounded, as well as the Filipinos who have wounds they are likely to recover from soon are shifted to hospitals in Bataan. A small flow of those American seriously wounded are evacuated by air (about 20 a day) by air transport to Cebu and Del Monte, where previously an evacuation hospital had been established. A trickle of medical supplies continues to come in by that same air route, although those supplies have to compete for space with other vital parts and supplies.

Eisenhower orders the Chennault and most of the remainder of the US Army Air Force Far East (USAFFE) out of the Philippines on January 3. A composite group consisting of the remaining fighters, light bombers and harassment aircraft will remain in Bataan, along with a ground element and squadron of volunteer pilots from the USAAF and PAAF. Heading this squadron is now Lieutenant Colonel William Dyess. Ground service crews will remain at Del Monte and Cebu to support the 4th Composite Group, which controls the remaining 30 medium and light transport aircraft that remain (Lieutenant Colonel Pappy Gunn, US Army Reserve), along with a few Navy float planes that are attached to the 16th Naval District. The seaplane tenders Childs and Preston, both converted 4 stack destroyers, make a final run to Bataan on January 2 with 100 infantry replacement volunteers from Cebu and nearly 300 tons of mortar rounds (60 and 81 mm) as well as a new SCR-270 radar set (all of which were rushed forward by those same two ships from Australia). Taking advantage of heavy rain, the ships remain until the night of January 3, allowing them to complete their offloading and take aboard 200 stretcher cases of American wounded. By good fortune both make it to Cebu without being detected, but sadly neither survives the Battle of the Celebes Sea. They are the last two American surface ships to leave Luzon successfully.

On the night of January 6, the last American and Filipino military and civilian government personnel evacuate Manila by boat. The Japanese 16th Division is a mere 20 kilometers away from both Manila and Cavite, while the Japanese 48th Division has patrols entering Camp O' Donnell. The only remaining major unit that is still outside of Bataan is the 6th Cavalry Brigade, and with the 26th Cavalry and 112th Cavalry both in position to retreat unimpeded. Both however are deployed in front of Clark Field in a final effort to once again make the Japanese deploy for an assault before they fall back and also to buy a little more time for the evacuation of useful salvaged equipment and parts.

The Japanese react as expected, and once again the American cavalry breaks off after a few skirmishes. The final demolition parties retreat through the cavalry screen as it retreats south and on January 8, 1942, the Japanese enter Manila and on that same date, the last of the American rear guard, A Troop/1 Squadron / 112th Cavalry Regiment, enters the Bataan defense line.

Homma is criticized in part for his slowness in pursuing the Americans after Lingayen Gulf, although he is defended by others who point out at his heavy losses, weakness in supply and the unexpected heavy resistance put up by Filipino troops, as strong as the Chinese resistance in the Battle of Shanghai back in 1937. General Homma keeps his job, but there are grumblings back in Tokyo and few see a role for him after the campaign is over. He is ordered to finish off the Americans as soon as possible.

Meanwhile in Bataan the siege is finally about to begin.

 

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US Army Philippines January 15, 1942
After the retreat into Bataan the US Army Far East is reorganized into 3 Corps plus a general reserve. Over 12,000 men were lost due to death, wounds, capture or are simply missing as a result of the fighting at the beachheads and in the delaying action that followed.

To make good those losses, the 4th Engineer Brigade has both of its regiments converted into infantry and assigned to the mauled 21st Infantry Division (which lost 6 battalions in its fight from Lamon Bay to Bataan), while each of the remaining engineer brigades have 2 battalions each disbanded to provide infantry replacements. The American rear area personnel are combed out to provide replacements for the 31st Infantry Regiment, 65th Infantry Regiment, and 112th Cavalry Regiment so that for a brief time in mid January all of the combat units are at full strength.

Eisenhower establishes his forward headquarters at Mariveles, sends General Ord to command the rear area at Corregidor, and gives Wainwright tactical command of the forces on Bataan, with General King commanding the I Corps, General Parker commanding the II Corps and General Lim commanding III Corps. General Weaver remains in command of the 6th Cavalry Brigade, which has both cavalry regiments and both tank battalions assigned, as well as both engineer battalions from the 12th and 23rd Infantry Divisions. Brigadier General Beebe remains as Eisenhower's chief of staff.

However by January 20 Eisenhower is under pressure to move from the Philippines to Australia, as he has responsibility for all US Army forces not only in the Philippines, but also in the Dutch East Indies and Australia and although he delays as long as he can, by February 1 a Presidential Order from Washington DC arrives directing him to move his headquarters post haste.

US Army Bataan
I Corps (42,000 men)
12th Infantry Division (31st US, 57th PS, 13th PA), (11,000 men)
1st Philippine Infantry Division (1st PA, 2nd PA, 3rd PA)(11,000 men)
51st Philippine Infantry Division (51st PA, 52nd PA, 45th PS) (11,000 men)
Corps HQ and artillery (9,000 men)
II Corps (31,000 men)
11th Philippine Infantry Division (11th PA, 12th PA, 43rd PS) (11,000 men)
23rd Infantry Division (65th US, 47th PS, 53rd PA) (11,000 men)
Corps HQ and artillery (9,000 men)
III Corps (32,000 men)
21st Infantry Division (21st PA, 25th PA, 26th PA) (11,000 men)
101st Infantry Regiment (2,500 men)
1st Engineer Brigade (3,500 men)
2nd Engineer Brigade (3,500 men)
3rd Engineer Brigade (3,500 men)
1st Separate Battalion (USMC)(1,000)
Corps HQ and artillery (7,000 men)
USAFE rear area and reserve (7,000 men)
9th Cavalry Brigade (3,000 men, 60 tanks, 45 halftracks with 75mm guns)
service and support (4,000 men includes Navy and Army Air Force personnel)
total force 112,000 men

Manila Bay Defenses (General Moore)
Fort Mills (Corregidor), Fort Drum, Fort Hughes, Fort Frank (16,000 men) includes coast defense troops and the 91st Infantry Brigade (PA)


Cebu, Panay and Leyte Islands (Chynoweth) (17,000)
31st Philippine Infantry Division (11,000) (31st PA Cebu, 32nd PA Leyte, 33rd PA Panay)
plus 6,000 service and support personnel including Army Air Force and medical staff of evacuation hospital

Mindanao (Sharp) (13,000)
41st Philippine Infantry Division (11,000) (41st PA, 42nd PA, 43rd PA)
803rd Army Air Force Engineer battalion (1,000)
IV Corps HQ (2,000 men)


plus 2,000 service and support including Army Air Force and Navy personnel and staff of evacuation hospital

 

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The ugly down spiral of attrition
In World War II, based on American records (and numerous sources), American combat divisions suffered a rate of attrition of 2.6% while in contact with the enemy on a quiet front with contact limited to patrol actions and harassment. For the front line combat companies and troops this rate was double that figure (so 5.2%). For every seven men that became a casualty, typical experience was 1 dead, 1 psychological casualty (battle fatigue, combat exhaustion or more pronounced forms of PTSD), 1 permanently disabled due to wounds, 2 wounded requiring 60 days or more of treatment and 2 wounded required less than 60 days of treatment. In the European Theater of Operations this worked out usually to be 7.3 casualties per 1,000 men in an infantry division.

These are combat casualties only.

In addition, another 1% losses are suffered daily due to accidents (combat zones are by their nature unsafe work environments).

Based on the previous I am assuming a casualty rate of about 6% a day for the combat formations and 3% for the everyone else. That works out to be about based on 110,000 overall troops and about a third of them being in combat battalions (roughly 40,000) about 40 dead, 40 permanently crippled, 80 severely wounded (and in the hospital for 60 days or more, effectively out of the campaign), and 80 seriously or lightly wounded treated and released fairly quickly (often simply treated at their battalion aid station and sent back to the line) plus 40 a day lost to combat exhaustion (about half return to duty, the other half are effectively out of the campaign).

So every week roughly 2,000 men out of action, of which about 700 are able to return to duty. As the size of the force falls so does the number of casualties from attrition (after all it is percentage based) but effectively 2,000 – 1,500 men lost a week over the course of the campaign. There are no replacements for these losses. Japanese losses will be similar (almost no combat exhaustion evacuations but that just means those people end up dead or wounded).

Disease attrition
The principal disease problems in Bataan are Malaria and Dengue Fever and while intensive efforts were made pre campaign to deal with major mosquito breeding areas this is the tropics, standing water is everywhere, and in the low lying areas there is simply no way to eliminate them all. There is no cure for Malaria, only medicines that suppress it and while quinine was stockpiled in very large quantities pre war and more was found after the fighting started, it is still ultimately just a suppressant.

Historically 65% of the force developed malaria during the campaign. Taking into account the previous, I am going to assume that 45% will get it during the campaign. This seems to fit 1943 figures for New Guinea and the Solomon Islands where atabrine was widely available (also a suppressant) and active measures were taken for mosquito control. In effect about 5,000 men a week are combat ineffective due to malaria and dengue fever (which has no preventives but is less severe with adequate energy levels from adequate food). Of these, roughly 100 men will die from the 2 diseases. Japanese casualties were about the same level historically in this campaign. However they have replacements available. Historically for almost 6 weeks the Japanese were about as shattered as the American and Filipinos were just from disease and attrition.

It will be roughly the same here.

This does not include combat casualties from major actions.......

The siege alone will eventually wear down the American and Filipino troops at Bataan although it will take months. Everyone is well aware of this fact.

some useful sources:
"How to Make War" James Dunnigan (there are 4 editions)
"The Sharp End: The Fighting Man in World War II" John Ellis
"Dirty Little Secrets of World War II" James Dunnigan
"Touched With Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific" Eric Bergerud
and here is a good online source on the medical situation historically
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/Malaria/chapterIX.htm

and of course the US Army official History (the known of course as the Green Books) which can be found online
http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/005/5-2-1/CMH_Pub_5-2-1.pdf

 

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The siege begins
By January 16, the first elements of the Japanese 4th and 16th Divisions are scouting out American and Filipino defenses and clashing with patrols sent out to see what the Japanese are up to. The rest of both divisions, as well as the 14th Army artillery and the 65th Brigade are in position by January 20, although Homma is a bit disquieted by the strength of the American positions which seem strong everywhere except in the dense jungles of Mount Natib, but conditions there are difficult due to the terrain and dense vegetation. He would prefer to use the 48th Division as well, which has mostly been rebuilt back up to to strength but has orders for it to be embarked no later than February 1 as it has a mission further south. In exchange he will get the 38th Infantry Division, freshly rebuilt from its fierce battle at Hong Kong but it will arrive on the ships that will be embarking the 48th Division, which means it will not be ready for action until February 4 or later as it has to land at Lingayen and then move overland to Bataan.

The staff of the 14th Army estimates that the Americans exhausted most of their artillery ammunition fighting at the beachhead, and as the Americans and Filipinos were driven back routinely after the first few days, they are certain that once driven out of their entrenchments the Americans and Filipinos will route and ultimately surrender. This turns out to be a severe underestimate of what lies ahead.

The Japanese offensive calls for the 65th, supported by tanks, to attack the American 12th Division, heavily supported by artillery, which should result in drawing into action the bulk of the American reserves. The 16th Division will attack the 23rd, 51st and 11th Divisions with a regiment each, its primary goal to pin those divisions in place, supported by tanks and engineers in the attack on the 23rd Division. The primary thrust will be by the 4th Division, whose veterans should make short work of the Filipinos of the 1st Division, take Albun, Nagpilapil and then swing over to the coast, take Abucy and thus cut off the entire US I Corps. To further accelerate the American collapse, a landing by the 1st SNLF at Bagac will result in the American II Corps being cut off or at the very least the commitment of the rest of any spare American forces.


Meanwhile, the patrol actions convince Eisenhower and Wainwright that the Japanese first attack is imminent but news that the entire 48th Division is still in Manila leads them to consider a possible amphibious attack by it from Nasughu against Mariveles or even Corrigedor so to guard against that the 9th Cavalry will be kept back, while a report of a build up of Japanese landing craft at Subic Bay means that the III Corps must remain on alert. Admiral Rockwell meanwhile prepares the remaining gunboats, minesweepers, armed patrol craft and PT boats of the Philippine Coast Guard and US Navy for action although he considers the Subic Bay area the more likely threat as the Japanese have not yet moved up minesweepers to clear the extensive minefields defending the American harbor defenses from attack from the South China Sea (and thus Mariveles and Corregidor are likely safe for now).

The 1st Battle of Bataan
On January 21, the Japanese open up at first light with a heavy barrage against defenses held by the 12th and 23rd Divisions, thus threatening both flanks of the American line. Eisenhower orders all artillery to remain silent, as ammunition must be saved for the attack although he is willing to use nearly all of it to shatter this first Japanese effort and thus knock them back on their heels. By an hour after dawn the Japanese are attacking all across the front. The only place the Japanese gain any ground at all is a few hundred yards held by the 13th PA Regiment, which is pushed back. Elsewhere the first day sees gains only limited to the outer American defenses and even there they are desperately costly.


Off Bagac Bay the Japanese suffer disaster, as the US and Filipino boats and craft of the inshore patrol catch the Japanese by surprise in the darkness, followed by air attacks by the entire Bataan air detachment. The few Japanese troops that get ashore are wiped out by the vengeful 21st Division, eager for revenge after its painful retreat from Lamon Bay and only a handful of prisoners are captured ashore and a few dozen survivors manage to return to Subic Bay aboard badly shot up landing craft. The Japanese escorts, a few submarine chasers are all badly shot up and 3 are sunk, while the arrival of several destroyers is too late as the Americans have already retreated back to Mariveles by the time they arrive and Japanese Army bombers are concentrating on the front, leaving little support for other missions. Over 1,400 Japanese Navy Special Landing Force Troops are killed by drowning or gunfire and they make no significant impact on the battle.

Meanwhile as the second day of fighting continues, Eisenhower is pleased to learn that he has the naval support he needs and thus his reserves can now be committed elsewhere if he desires. The Japanese have managed to push the 31st US and 57th PS from the Orani River, although at a heavy cost to both sides, although their push elsewhere is bogged down. Eisenhower takes the 101st Infantry Regiment from III Corps and gives it to Wainwright to use as his tactical reserve but withholds permission to commit the 9th Cavalry just yet. Meanwhile General Parker launches a counterattack with elements of the 43rd PS and most of the 11th Infantry Division, catching the somewhat battered Japanese 16th Division off guard as it has yet to face a serious American attack in the campaign so far.

By dawn on day 4, King is forced to pull the 45th PS out of the line as it is down to a third of its strength and now Eisenhower gives permission for the 9th Cavalry to attack. It hits the 65th Brigade and its attacked tanks and engineers at the deepest point of the Japanese penetration (2 kilometers from the Orani River) while on the left, Parker continues his attack on the 16th Division which is really small groups of soldiers on each side trying to find each other in the jungle before the enemy spots them. Heavy artillery fire on both sides continues to shred units and vegetation but only on the coastal plain is it really effective.

By the end of the 4th Day, January 25, it is clear to General Homma that the Americans are not going to collapse. Indeed there is a danger they might destroy some of his badly depleted infantry regiments. His troops have already suffered nearly 11,000 casualties, well over half his infantry and casualties among his engineers and tanks are equally severe while his light artillery, which has been moved nearly to the front line, is similarly hard hit. The 4th Division, which was supposed to outflank the American line, has run head on into a buzz saw held by the 1st PA Division, which has given almost no ground at all and indeed does not seem likely to either. Limited to a single track for resupply, the Japanese cannot build up sufficient firepower superiority to clear the Filipinos out of their positions and find a dense series of interlocking positions that indeed mirror what their own defense would have been.

Eisenhower has Wainwright call a halt to Parker's attack which has already completely restored his original line and other than a push by the 12th Infantry and 9th Cavalry to push off the Japanese penetration (which is already starting to retreat) I Corps is to cease operations once it restores its original line as well. Already artillery ammunition is down by 60% and there is little likelihood of more arriving. Casualties have been serious as well, with over 6,000 men killed or wounded and many of them are the 65th and 31st US, neither of which are going to see replacements. Indeed the 3 regiments of the 12th Division are down to 45% strength in their infantry overall, and while more engineers can be made into Filipino infantry replacements there will be no American infantry replacements. Satisfied with his defensive victory, Eisenhower wires Washington the details

It is the first American ground victory of World War II, and while only a defensive victory and while the Americans and Filipinos are still under siege, it is still a major boon to US morale at home. Eisenhower and Wainwright are both hailed as heroes, while several American and Filipino officers and men are hailed by the press as medal citations come in.

The US Navy is not left out by Eisenhower either, his report of the success of the PT Boats under Lieutenant Commander Bulkeley will lead ultimately lead to a highly successful book and movie based on the actions of the PT crews and a large number of volunteers for PT Boats throughout the war. The personal thanks by General Eisenhower and his recommendation of the personnel of the 16th Naval District for a Presidential Unit Citation is cause for a great deal of appreciation by the Navy for Eisenhower and would be remembered for a long time to come.

 

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A savage mauling
The Japanese primary attack during 1st Bataan was by the older reservists of the 65th Brigade and the veterans of the 4th Division, supported by most of the 14th Army artillery and 100 tanks. It fell upon 6 regiments of American and Filipino troops of the 12th US and 1st Philippine Divisions in the hardest fighting of the campaign so far. The American/Filipinos defense line consisted of an outpost line held by 12 companies of infantry in platoon outposts (dug in for all around defense), a main line of defense held by another 12 companies of infantry plus the battalion and regimental heavy weapons (machine guns and mortars) companies, also entrenched for all around defense, and a reserve line held by 12 more companies of infantry (again entrenched for all around defense) where the divisional 75 mm field guns, anti tank guns and 4 batteries of .50 caliber machine guns from the Filipino 3rd Coast Artillery Regiment were dug in. Behind these lines were the divisional and corps artillery (French and American 105 mm guns and a pair of batteries of French 155 guns).

In front of the outpost line was a 50 meter stretch of minefields and barbed wire, while communications trenches connected the three lines of defense. All artillery was preregistered, and while most of the mines were makeshift (improvised from 3 inch mortar rounds and command detonated by wire) the wire and mines were enough, in the face of heavy artillery fire, to make the initial Japanese attempt a bloody shambles. Even using infiltration tactics it took the Japanese 2 days to clear the main defense line and push the American and Filipino troops back, and the nature of the fighting was very much reminiscent of the Great War.

By the time the Japanese penetrated this line, the first American reserves were up, including additional heavy machine guns manned by Marines from the 1st Separate Battalion and Filipino Coast Defense troops from the 4th Coast Artillery. Also assisting in the initial counterattack were 50 Bren Gun Carriers which were used as heavy machine gun carriers, plus the reserve infantry companies from the reserve line and every single gun that could bear. Japanese losses by the third day were running at 50% or more of their attack force, with most officers dead or wounded, many of the more energetic NCOs also lost, and and tank losses were also running high. In the face of the withering artillery and heavy machine gun fire, the last gasp of the attack were mowed down with Japanese companies reduced to weak platoons.

The counterattack by dismounted Cavalry troopers of the 26th Cavalry and troopers riding on scout cars, trucks and on the back of tanks of the 112th Cavalry, plus the engineers from the 12th and 23rd Engineer battalions and the tanks of the 192nd and 194th was the crowning blow. Advancing under heavy artillery support, the American cavalry and armor shattered a final last gasp attack by Japanese tanks and engineers, wrecking two Japanese tank regiments (battalion sized organizations) and an engineer regiment, and the Japanese retreat was hurried enough to almost be considered a route. Only the die hard defenders of a Japanese anti – tank battalion with their 47 mm guns and several infantry companies which had to be rooted out position by position bought the time for the rest of the two Japanese formations to retreat with a semblance of order.

American losses were not cheap however. Most of the infantry companies in the outpost and main line of defense took serious to severe losses, and indeed a company of the 13th Infantry Regiment (PA) was reduced in size to a single squad lead by a 2nd Lieutenant Ferdinand Marcus which was finally wiped out on day 3 after being cut off for three days. His recommendation for a Medal of Honor was later downgraded to a Distinguished Service Cross which was awarded post war to his family. However a more successful stand by Company C, 1st Battalion, 1st Infantry Regiment (PA) by 1st Lieutenant (and then Captain) Ramon Magsaysay whose company was in the outpost line and blocked the narrow track that the Japanese considered their primary attack against the 1st Division not only held up the Japanese for two days, but he led 45 survivors back to the mainline of defense, took over command of the 1st Battalion after his seniors were killed or wounded, and retreated skillfully in the face of the enemy until reinforcements from the 101st Infantry Regiment reached him, allowing him to hold in place and then regain ultimately the forward position where his company had started. His Medal of Honor was awarded in 1944 and would carry him to high office in the Republic of the Philippines, ultimately the Presidency in 1953.

The Japanese attack was skillfully carried out, well supported and indeed with reserves could have carried the American and Philippine positions (and indeed did push through the main line of defense). The primary Japanese error was underestimating the firepower and skill of the defense, and assuming that they could route the enemy out of well supported and defended positions by flanking action. As it turns out there were no flanks to be turned due to the nature of the defensive position (prepared for all around defense) and even cutting them off was difficult due to reserves who could counterattack and bring forward ammunition as needed. But finally the attack failed because attrition had so reduced the Japanese attack that it simply was not strong enough to hold off a combined arms counterattack by American and Filipino tanks, light artillery, heavy machine guns, engineers and well trained infantry.

 

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Fall back to the Final Defense Line January 27 – 29
Eisenhower and Wainwright decide after the heavy losses suffered at 1st Bataan that it is time to fall back to the prepared Final Defense Line, which the engineers of the USAFE have been preparing since November 1941. With the Japanese reeling and still falling back to reorganize, now is the perfect opportunity. Once again the cavalry troopers of the 26th and 112th Cavalry take up positions as the rear guard, supported by the 101st Infantry Brigade, all veterans of the phased retreat to Bataan. The rest of the USAFE is pulled back to the Bagac-Pilar Line over the course of the next two days.

Needing fresh troops, and running low on American infantry for the 31st and 65th Infantry regiment, Eisenhower orders the 91st Infantry Brigade (with its two regiments, the 91st and 92nd PA Infantry) which have been training at Corregidor since November 1941 broken up as replacements, while the 16th Naval District moves both of the American regiments (down to 40% strength) to Corregidor to replace them. Both American regiments are reorganized as single battalions, and excess personnel are either assigned to the 6th Cavalry or assigned to special group that Eisenhower intends to evacuate from the Philippines. Also sent over is the 1st Engineer Regiment (Philippine Army) which together with the 2 American battalions provides Corregidor with an infantry defense force of 3,500 US and Filipino troops. This also reduces the total garrison of Corregidor to 14,000 men (and 67 Filipino and American women nurses).

The engineers are again culled for manpower to serve as infantry replacements as well, which along with the disbanded 91st Brigade provides 12,000 replacements in all which is enough to make good all Filipino losses to date. As losses to date number 10,000, including those lost to attrition (and only about 3,000 are likely to return), this infusion of manpower is more than welcome and indeed allows combat units to send a large number of the more shaken and emotionally exhausted men to the rear for duties in service and combat support units. The Cavalry pulls back on January 30, and again goes into reserve. Homma meanwhile cautiously probes forward but as his combat units are badly mauled, he is unwilling to push just yet. He is unsurprised to find yet another American fortified line waiting for him 15-20 kilometers behind the initial American line.


Luzon Force (General Ord on February 1, 1942)
Bataan Force (Wainwright) (103,000 men)
I Corps (King) (42,000 men)
1st Philippine Infantry Division (1st PA, 2nd PA, 3rd PA)(11,000 men)
51st Philippine Infantry Division (51st PA, 52nd PA, 45th PS) (11,000 men)
12th Infantry Division (57th PS, 13th PA, 92nd PA,) (11,000 men)
Corps HQ and artillery (9,000 men)
II Corps (Parker) (42,000 men)
21st Infantry Division (21st PA, 25th PA, 26th PA) (11,000 men)
11th Infantry Division (11th PA, 12th PA, 43rd PS) (11,000 men)
23rd Infantry Division (47th PS, 53rd PA, 91st PA) (11,000 men)
Corps HQ and artillery 9,000 men)
Reserve (Lim) (19,000 men)
101st Infantry (PA) (attached 192nd Tank Battalion (US), 3rd Coast Artillery (mobile AA)(PA) (3,000 men)
6th Cavalry Brigade w 26th Cavalry (PS), 112th Cavalry (US NG), 194th Tank Battalion, (1,500 men)
Bataan Engineer Group (PA)(3,000 men)
USMC 1st Separate Battalion
4th Coast Artillery (PA)(AA)(2,000 men)
Bataan HQ, support and artillery reserve (9,500 men)
Manila Bay Defenses (General Moore)
Fort Mills (Corregidor), Fort Drum, Fort Hughes, Fort Frank (14,000 men) includes coast defense troops and the infantry garrison of 31st US, 65th US, and 1st Engineer Brigade (PA)

US Army Visayen Force (Ord)
General Ord is sent by air to take command of all US Army forces outside of Bataan, including stay behind forces that are now being created and placed into position through out the islands, including from behind Japanese lines in Luzon, by boat and light transport aircraft. The least effective men of the IV Corps are left to man the IV Corps, 31st and 41st Infantry Divisions (which now fall to a strength of 2,500 men each) with muster roles altered to reflect those units suffering heavy attrition from disease and desertion. This allows Ord to send 20,000 men into the hills throughout the islands with orders to lay low until contact is restored with USAFE in Australia at a future date. The remaining 4,000 men at Cebu and Mindanao are prepared for evacuation by ship and aircraft. Eisenhower wants to evacuate them to act as cadre as a future Philippine Scouts for when the Philippines are liberated in the future.

Meanwhile Homma is forced to ask the Imperial General Staff for 30,000 replacements, not only for those lost at 1st Bataan but the significant losses suffered from the landing to present.

 

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Recovering from a heavy blow
The casualties suffered in American command echelons in the early days of the war in the Pacific were unexpected and a significant shock to the US Military as well as President Roosevelt. Hammer blows briefly shattered the American air and naval power in Hawaii and the Philippines.

For the Army it has fought battles that have lived up to it finest traditions as Eisenhower was able to move up and take over in the Philippines for the Army, while in Hawaii General Harmon and his subordinates fought a desperate battle against a powerful enemy as well as could be expected and indeed inflicted damage that had far more consequences for Japanese Carrier Aviation than anyone on the Allied side yet fully understands. A number of Army pilots are now heroes celebrated across the country which the Army eagerly takes advantage of in its recruiting efforts.

For the Navy however it has been a far more costly struggle and it lost its senior commanders for both the Asiatic and Pacific Fleet. Worse, it has lost 25 warships sunk, another 18 damaged and out of actions for months or even years, and suffered devastating personnel casualties. While it inflicted serious losses on the Japanese, sinking 14 Japanese warships of all types (along with 10 transport ships), and damaging another 20 of all types sufficiently to knock them out of the war for months at least, the US Navy is still been rocked hard by the opening battles of the war.

The first priority was Hawaii, and Chester Nimitz takes command on December 31, 1941. He has only one significant striking force, the two carriers of Task Force 16 (Spruance) and its escorts for all of December and into early January. The carrier Saratoga and its escorts are used to escort urgent convoys carrying new fight and bomber groups to Hawaii, as well as urgently needed specialists and material for the Pacific Fleet. The painful loss of the Saratoga to a Japanese submarine on January 24, which sends the crippled carrier to Bremerton Naval Yard for several months is a further blow and sets into motion a series of decisions that leads to the deployment of the carrier Wasp and Hornet to the Pacific, with both carriers leaving the Atlantic early February. Neither are yet battle ready however when they reach California, as both are awaiting the final formation of their air groups which will not be ready before April. This leaves only the carrier Ranger in the Atlantic until the first of the escort carriers can join the fleet and until the Essex, which is still almost a year away, reaches the fleet.

However the Navy is still willing to fight. The problem is finding what to fight with. The Japanese success in the Pacific, at least as far as the Axis know so far, helps Doenitz make his case to Hitler to send 12 Type IX U Boats to conduct Operation Drumbeat, and when the American carriers are sent to the Pacific they do so with their cruisers and a bare minimum of destroyers. The success of joint Army Navy cooperation in the Battle of Hawaii also results in the deployment of substantial Army and Navy aircraft to the Caribbean and Atlantic East Coast. The hard charging (and difficult) Admiral Ernie King is given command of the Caribbean, and he and Admiral Kimmel begin their long fight against the U-Boat threat which will consume their attention for the next 3 years. This results in the old battleships on the Atlantic Fleet remaining in port for much of the next year, due to shortages of escorts, and leaves few destroyers available for the Pacific after the initial flurry of reinforcements in December.

The strong defense of the Philippines by Eisenhower and his troops means that at least some effort must be made to send what supplies that can sent to his forces and evacuating some of the defenders whose knowledge and experience are highly valuable. In addition Australia must be defended, a priority that now ranks very high on the Allied war plan for sound military and political reasons. Admiral Nimitz sends newly promoted Vice Admiral Patrick Bellinger (whose command of the search forces is considered a major reason for the ability of American forces to fight as well as they did there) to take command of US Naval Forces South and Southwest Pacific and sends the newly arrived Patrol Wing 8 (and its 40 aircraft) with him. With him come orders straight from the office of the President to get Eisenhower out of Luzon and to Australia as the highest priority.

Meanwhile Lieutenant General George Brett (USAAF), serving as Deputy Commander of ABDA, Deputy Commander US Army Far East, and Commander US Forces Australia, has managed to continue irritate his British allies, and has added the Dutch and Australians to the list of allies who find his manner grating while his subordinates find him difficult to work for. However with Eisenhower still in Luzon he remains the man on the spot.

The Reinforcement of Australia
The first American forces reach Darwin in late December 1941, consisting of 4,000 USAAF and Philippine Army Air Force (PAAF) evacuated from Luzon who are organized into 5th Air Force Support Command, Australia under the initial command of Brigadier General Lawrence Churchill. Chennault arrives on January 5, and within days is in bitter arguments with General Brett. With him are most of the survivors of the combat groups of the USAFFE which are soon on their way back to the United States, along with the PAAF groups, to refit and to pass on their experience to the rest of the USAAF. The PAAF Groups will eventually form the basis of a fighter, light bomber and combat air cargo group which will return to the South Pacific in just over a year and include a large number of Filipino Americans from California and Hawaii.

The first reinforcements from the United States arrive with the Pensacola Convoy, with the 159th Infantry Regiment (California National Guard) and the 124th Field Artillery Regiment (Illinois National Guard with 24 105 mm guns) is sent forward to Darwin to wait for shipping. Brett meanwhile orders the 28th Engineer Regiment (aviation) to begin construction of airfields in the Townsville area, and initially holds the 72nd Artillery Regiment (24 105 guns) at Townsville as well before Eisenhower orders it to Darwin too in late January. The Americans find that the Australians have relatively weak aviation forces (18 aircraft) although 5 Australian AIF and Militia infantry battalions are present, along with a few batteries of artillery but only little anti-aircraft protection. Eisenhower is informed of the Australian weakness by Chennault and Rear Admiral Glassford (commander of what is left of the surface elements of the Asiatic Fleet) and he orders the proposed movement of the American infantry and field artillery canceled and assigns them to Brigadier General Clive Steele, Australian Army, who was supposed to go to Sumatra but with the assignment of American troops to Darwin is made commander of the joint American Australian garrison instead.

Vice Admiral Bellinger, arrives at Darwin after making stops at Fiji, Melbourne and Rabaul before reaching Darwin on January 11. He sends a report back to Nimitz urging the immediate reinforcement of Rabaul and the same is sent forward to Eisenhower. The Admiral, who was the 4th American naval aviator trained, was very impressed by the potential of Rabaul and Simpson Harbor particularly, and he feels that it would be a superb base and if reinforced could serve as the outer bastion that shields the entire South Pacific area. A series of messages from Nimitz to Washington leads to the rerouting of a the convoy transporting the 2nd Marine Brigade (General Larsen commanding) which is being escorted by Task Force 16 as well Eisenhower ordering an engineer regiment and fighter group en route to Australia being diverted there as well. The Australian Lark Force, a reinforced battalion of Australian AIF troops, is more than happy to see the arrival of this powerful reinforcement but not nearly as much as the RAAF squadron (consisting of 12 Wirraway 'fighters' ) already present. Additional reinforcements of the Patrol Wing 8 along with seaplane tenders Wright, Casco, Swan.

Air protection for Darwin arrives in late January 1942, consisting of the 35th Pursuit Group with 3 squadrons of P40E fighters, along with the air defense control center that had been meant for Luzon, as well as a regiment of anti-aircraft guns, another engineer regiment (general service), and several support units that had been planned for deployment to Luzon. More critical for continued efforts in the Philippines are the arrival of 2 squadrons of C47 transport aircraft, and several LB30 bombers are quickly converted into transports as well forming a provisional squadron with American and Australian crews. Admiral Bellinger also allocates 8 Catalina's to Far East Air Force transport command.

By January 16, all remaining C47, C39 and LB30 aircraft are permanently based at Darwin, where they fly daily flights to Cebu, where they are unloaded and their cargos are transferred to C45 and PBY aircraft for the flight to Bataan. This allows the delivery of 400 tons of vital spares, parts and other supplies a week and the evacuation of 350 stretcher cases and 400 other passengers a week from the Philippines to Australia.

The arrival of the large submarines Narwhal and Nautilus gives larger than average submarines for blockade running missions and Bellinger soon requests the Argonaut, Barracuda, Bass, and Bonita be converted for blockade running duty before they are transferred to the South Pacific. None of these boats reach the theater until June 1942. Another 8 former Asiatic Fleet submarines are also assigned this duty. The submarines carry supplies in, although only a few tons at a time, but carry out the most critical and important personnel, including the remaining senior officials of the Filipino government at Corregidor and numerous specialists including all of the code breaking staff and nurses by the end of the siege.

 

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Evacuation of General Eisenhower
On January 30, 1942, the USS Tarpon arrives at Corregidor carrying the aid de camp of Admiral Bellinger on board with plans from the Admiral for the evacuation of Eisenhower and other key staff. At the same time Eisenhower receives a Presidential order to leave Luzon and to proceed to Singapore and then Australia before flying to Washington to confer with General Marshal, Secretary Stimson and the President on February 20. The order continues that after that conference he is to return to Australia to take command of all Allied forces in South and the Southwest Pacific under the command of Admiral Nimitz (who is overall theater commander of the Pacific Theater).

Although leaving his men behind is profoundly distasteful Eisenhower has little choice but to accept the order. An order is radioed to General Ord promoting him to Lieutenant General and commander of US forces in the Philippines at his new headquarters in Cebu City. Wainwright is appointed commander of US Forces Luzon under the authority of Ord and thus Eisenhower. General King is appointed commander of Bataan, while General Moore will remain as commander of the harbor defenses.

Orders are also given for the evacuation of all the remaining officers of PT Squadron 3, and the 4 remaining boats are to be turned over to officers of the Philippine Coast Guard. The enlisted men are reassigned to other duties or remain with the boats as advisors. Those officers leave with the submarine, along with several older staff officers with important skills, on February 2. All of them are returned to the United States where they will rise in the PT Boat force which will grow significantly over the next couple of years and see action in Europe, the Mediterranean and the Pacific.

On the evening of January 31, 8 PBY Catalina patrol bombers, stripped of most of their enlisted men crew, land just before dark. General Eisenhower, his Chief of Staff General Beebe, their aides including Captain Edwin Ramsey, as well as several company executive officers, platoon leaders and senior NCOs from the 31st US Infantry, 65th US Infantry, 192nd and 194th Tank Battalions, 26th Cavalry, and 1st Separate Battalion (USMC) as Eisenhower wants experienced combat officers and senior NCOs to be sent home to pass on their experience but does not want to gut those units completely of good officers. A total of 90 men are flown out an hour after the aircraft land and all successfully complete their first leg to Singapore, arriving just before dawn. There Eisenhower meets with Wavell and finds that the British defenders are demoralized, at least at the command level, particularly their commander General Percival.

The meeting with General Eisenhower however, who is confident his troops will hold out for months and who has fought a successful battle with the Japanese does trigger a decision by Wavell that will have substantial consequences.

 

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Creation of the Southwest Pacific Command
General Eisenhower, fresh from the Philippines, arrives in Hawaii on February 6, and he has a long meeting with Admiral Nimitz regarding what to do against the Japanese. Eisenhower persuades Nimitz that Rabaul in New Britain is the best place for a forward bastion to defend not only Australia but also the sea lines of communications to that, and that reinforcements slated for places like Fiji, New Caledonia and Samoa would be better placed at Tulagi, Port Moresby, Espiritu Santo, and Rabaul. Particularly all available aviation, engineer, anti-aircraft, and coast artillery forces not needed to defend Midway, Hawaii or Line Islands. New Ireland also threatens the flank of the Japanese Mandates, has one of the best harbors in the world, and with development will be an ideal base for the US Navy when the United States begin offensive operations against the Japanese perimeter. Eisenhower also has with him a report from Admiral Bellinger seconding his recommendations.

In mid February Eisenhower reports to General Marshall and President Roosevelt and after delivering his report and his recommendations, he finds that the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Roosevelt and Churchill, at the urging of Prime Minister Curtin of Australia and General Wavell, have resulted in him being appointed Commander in Chief Allied Forces Southwest Pacific, including Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Guinea, as well as the Solomons, Bismarks, Fiji, New Hebrides, and Tonga Islands. Everything north of that will be under the command of Nimitz. Eisenhower will be given a fleet to support him, but even when elements of Nimitz forces are in his area they will remain under the control of Nimitz. There is some horsetrading, but in the end Nimitz gets loaned the Ranger (until April) and Wasp (until May) at which point they will be sent back to the Atlantic as they will be needed for planned operations. Eisenhower gets the units he is requesting (at the cost of some divisions allocated to Europe instead).

Eisenhower is given the mission of defending his area of operations from further Japanese advances and also the job of preparing for the liberation of the Philippines. Nimitiz is given the overall mission of destroying the Japanese Navy and advancing across the Pacific and ultimately seizing the bases needed for the blockade and defeat of Japan.

Meanwhile, the Cebu/Surubaya/Darwin airlift is interrupted by allocation of aircraft to the air evacuation of Singapore until February 10, and then after a only 3 days, ends completely with the powerful air attacks that smash Allied airfields at Surabaya, Batavia and finally Darwin. Aside from a few light transports still in Cebu, the airlift does not resume until late March and when it does it is only a few flights a week with a much reduced force. However the first American submarines begin a weekly visit to Corregidor on February 5, visits that will continue until nearly the end of the siege.

General Eisenhower returns to Australia on March 4 and makes his headquarters in Brisbane, with a forward headquarters established at Darwin and Rabaul. With him is his new chief of staff, General Wade Haislip, and a new commander of his Army Air Forces has been selected, General George Kenney, as his current air commander, General Chennault, has been specifically requested by the Nationalist Chinese and Roosevelt feels compelled to send him back to China in part to make up for the failure to get the American Volunteer Group to China.